Language Skills: Writing

1)Learning the HL script (Chinese)

• For languages like Chinese and Japanese, script learning is an important, if not the most important, component of HL writing, since the scripts in question are generally non-alphabetical, complex, and involve thousands of symbols as opposed to, say, the twenty-six letters in the Latin system.
• Considering the negative learning experiences some heritage students have had before coming to college, one of the major tasks in university classes is to address psychological obstacles in learning the script.
• Learning a script should be an enjoyable process. One source that can be explored in this respect is online animations of Chinese characters. There are many web sites that contain computer animations with visual images of stroke shapes and their order in composing Chinese characters. Also, many Chinese symbols have a pictographic origin; tracing their history is a memorable activity, as are artistic endeavors like calligraphy.
• Character learning should be systematic. Rather than having students focus on memorizing individual symbols, the instructor should place emphasis on the systematic nature of their shapes. Chinese characters are made up of so-called radicals, components shared by many different symbols. Explaining how different characters are related to each other enables learners to grasp the rules underlying the formation of unknown symbols.
• Script learning should not be an isolated process. It is better to combine character learning with other types of tasks, such as vocabulary building and composition writing. One possible way to combine these activities is to ask students to explore the internet via a Chinese reading software program (e.g., NJ Star Communicator) or the Windows/Mac built in Asian language support system. Students could read new texts (as a way of building vocabulary and improving character recognition) and write essays or reports based on what they have read (as a way of developing writing).
• A word of caution: even though computer tools for reading and especially writing can be fun components of heritage language instruction, emphasis should be placed on handwriting whenever possible, especially at the elementary level; research suggests that computer aided character writing can actually lower the retention rate of new characters.
• With Chinese, there is also the issue of traditional versus simplified characters. Since the two writing systems are often associated with political entities—mainland China with simplified characters, and Taiwan with traditional symbols—instructors should exercise sensitivity toward the politics of scripts. One way of doing this is to make the choices available to students rather than prescribe a single form.
• Here are some links to related sites:
  1. Chinese character animation sites:
     Tim Xie at CSU Long Beach
     Integrated Chinese, USC
     
  2. Chinese enabling software programs:
     NJ Star Communicator

2) Mastering the HL graphic system

• A wide range of L1 and FL strategies can be effectively used to practice the HL script. Such strategies include listing key words (and synonyms) from the conversation or reading, clustering thematically related words from the text, filling in the blanks with words from the reading or a word bank, matching words to their definitions or synonyms/ antonyms, copying the sentences that express the main ideas of the text, ordering sentences chronologically or logically, copying sentences in separate columns under the names of the characters or the events they describe, writing a time line or outline of the reading, etc.
• To practice orthography and written diacritics, students must first be taught the appropriate HL rules. If the learners are not literate, the instructor should insist on correct spelling from the beginning. If the students can write but make numerous spelling mistakes (due mainly to interference from English spelling and oral acquisition of the HL), dictation and error correction can be effective, especially if practiced systematically and frequently.

3) To reinforce HL grammar practice students can engage in written tasks similar to those used in L1 and FL classes: choosing the right word form from 2-3 options, filling in the blanks with certain parts of speech in the appropriate form, paraphrasing, answering or asking questions about a reading or situation, changing a dialogue to a narrative or vice versa, creating a dialogue, narrative or description of a situation, etc.

4) The structure of written HL can also be practiced through activities shared with L1 and FL instruction: adding the right punctuation and capitalization to a continuous text, combining sentences with the help of conjunctions or transition markers, filling in appropriate formal words or phrases, transforming informal texts into formal ones, etc.

5) General HL writing abilities can be enhanced through both HL-specific and non-specific tasks: summaries, descriptions, narratives from different points of view, relating personal experiences in letter, journal entry, or memoir format, expressing personal opinions/feelings about events or facts, comparing situations in the heritage culture with situations in the American culture, etc. (cf. Ur 1991: 165).

6) Throughout the HL course, heritage students can practice writing for real-life communication. This includes filling in actual HL forms, questionnaires, or surveys; initiating and responding to invitations, announcements, and ads; writing personal emails/letters to family and friends or formal complaint letters, letters of inquiry, or letters to the editor; writing résumés and job applications; creating HL newsletters or news bulletins; interviewing members of the HL community (oral histories) and writing feature articles based on the interviews; writing reviews of HL books and films; reporting on individual/group heritage research projects (cf. Brown 2001: 302-303).

7) Students can develop their HL academic writing skills faster and more effectively if they become aware of the elements involved in writing well. The instructor can guide them in transferring their L1 writing strategies to HL writing, while pointing out the differences between the two writing systems. Many strategies used in L1 and FL classes are also effective in HL academic writing instruction. A potential HL academic writing sequence is described below (cf. Samaniego & Pino 2000: 47).

• Choose a model writing sample related to the topic and in (or close to) the genre you want the students to practice and analyze it with input from the students. The elements in the analysis should be the topic of the writing, the purpose, audience, genre, organization of information, and language features.
• Starting from the model, determine with the class the topic to write about (what), the purpose of the writing (why), the audience the writing will address (to whom), and the genre it will belong to (how).
• Brainstorm ideas supporting the topic. Write the student generated ideas on the board, then delete the ones that don't belong (with input from the class), and organize the remaining ones logically or chronologically. Discuss the kind of language needed for the writing assignment, and list specific terms and/or cohesive markers on the board if necessary.
• After students write the first draft, have them read and comment on each other's papers as a preliminary step to the second draft. Provide the students with a grid for feedback (main and supporting ideas, text structure, etc.). Have students write the second draft as homework. Provide feedback to the second draft yourself, focusing on both text organization and language (grammar, vocabulary, register). Have students write the final draft in class or at home.
• Whenever you can, give students choices for writing tasks, so they can write about topics they are interested in. Plan for both individual and group assignments.

8) Written translation into HL can be used at all levels of language proficiency and for a wide range of purposes : practicing vocabulary and grammar, refining HL writing skills, developing the specialized skill of translation, providing access to information in HL, and performing community services.

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1. For literature-based written assignments, please see the file on Literature.
2. Bermel & Kagan (2000: 431-432) point out that “punctuation is a problem at all levels of mastery,” heritage students having the tendency to apply American punctuation rules (particularly obvious in the restricted use of commas). Also, most heritage students “need to improve their writing style, ridding it of pompous language and the mixing of stylistic levels and vocabulary.”
3. “Once heritage students learn to identify the linguistic conventions of specific genres and text types in the heritage language, they are ready to attempt to actively produce targeted text types.” (Chevalier 2004: 5)
4. “Written translation is one of the pillars of instruction throughout an HL program since it is a practical skill with application across disciplines.” (Kagan & Dillon 2004: 108)

Contributed by Georgiana Galateanu, Myriam Gonzalez-Smith, & Hongyin Tao

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Published: Friday, February 2, 2007