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Research

Current Heritage Language Learner Survey

We are conducting a national survey that examines heritage speakers' perceptions and experiences in heritage language education programs or language courses, in general. Importantly, though, we are also interested in heritage speakers, who are not enrolled in language courses nor a heritage language program at the post-secondary level. The survey is intended for heritage speakers of all languages, as long as they are students in community colleges or in four-year colleges or universities. The survey takes about 15 minutes. We would be so grateful if you'd administer the IRB approved survey (see link below) to your students and share it with colleagues, including colleagues in non-language departments that may enroll heritage speakers not taking language courses. Our goal is to publish the results of the survey, which we will circulate via this listserv at which point we hope it will be helpful in making course and programmatic decisions for your local context.

Link to survey: https://www.surveymonkey.com/r/HLSurvey2023

If you are a language instructor and teach a college-level class of heritage students, we would welcome your participation in the survey. For more information, please contact nhlrc@international.ucla.edu.

 

2009 Heritage Language Learner Survey

The goal of this survey was to collect information from Heritage Language Learners who were enrolled in post-secondary heritage language courses to better understand their backgrounds, attitudes, and goals in studying their heritage language. The data collected informed the NHLRC in designing heritage language curricular materials, as well as heritage language professional development projects.

The report below presents the analysis of 1,701 responses collected during academic years 2006-2007 and 2007-2008. The survey was ongoing until 2022. Data on individual languages are available upon request to the NHLRC (see email given below).

View the Heritage Language Learner Survey report.

 

The Heritage Language Journal (HLJ), an online, blind peer-reviewed journal, was established in 2002 to provide a forum for scholars to disseminate research and knowledge about heritage and community languages. The journal seeks submissions focused on acquisition and pedagogy of heritage and community languages from any of the following perspectives:

  • applied linguistics
  • theoretical linguistics
  • sociolinguistics
  • language pedagogy
  • language policy
  • other relevant fields

Since 2022, HLJ has partnered with Brill Publishers to publish articles on a continuous basis. Once an article has been approved for publication by the editors, it is published immediately.

View the Heritage Language Journal at the Brill Publishers webpage.

How to Participate

Goals

The goal of this site is to provide a central location for a collection of references, proficiency assessments, questionnaires, and research tools that may be utilized for assessing or conducting research on heritage speakers/learners' language skills. We hope that researchers, teachers, and program administrators will both use and contribute to this site, creating a community that exchanges ideas on current issues involving heritage languages and promotes collaboration and further study of this topic.

Using this site

Feel free to share, copy, or distribute the work contained on this site. Also feel free to adapt the work to suit your particular context. Many of the materials on this site are provided in Word document form for ease of adaptation. You may not, however, use any materials on this site for commercial purposes.

In addition, you MUST attribute any materials you share or adapt to the author. Citations should take the following form:
Author, date of doc, title of doc, National Heritage Language Resource Center, available at [URL of the doc].

As the NHLRC is funded by the U.S. Department of Education, we are required to report on the ways in which the materials provided on this site are used, and for this reason ask that you send a brief email to Claire Chik chik@international.ucla.edu describing how you are using or plan to use any materials that are of interest to you.

Contributing to this site

If you would like to contribute materials that you have developed and think are relevant to this site, please contact Julio Torres j.torres@uci.edu. Please submit materials that have been used in studies published in peer-reviewed publications or in approved dissertations.

Additionally, if you adapt any of the documents you find here for your own purposes, please could you send a copy to Claire or Julio so we can add your material to this website.

Language Background Questionnaires

Questionnaire in English for bilingual speakers of Spanish/English

Questionnaire in English for heritage speakers of Spanish

Description: Elicits information about heritage language students' backgrounds in Spanish use.

Source: Prof. Maria Carreira, CSULB

 

Proficiency Assessments

Literature Review for Proficiency Assessments

A gradient Bilingual Dominance Scale

Description: A bilingual gradient scale consisting of lexical and sentence translation tasks

Languages: Spanish/English

Source: Dunn, A. L. & Fox Tree, J.E. (2009). A quick, gradient Bilingual Dominance Scale. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 12(3), 273-289.

 

The development and validation of a Korean C-Test using Rasch Analysis

Description: C-Test

Language: Korean

Source: Sunyoung, L. (2009). The development and validation of a Korean C-Test using Rasch Analysis. Language Testing, 26(2), 245-274.

 

Linguistic correlates of proficiency in Korean as a second language

Description: Linguistic Correlates of Proficiency (LCP)

Language: Korean

Source: Lee, S-Y., Moon, J., & Long, M. H. (2009). Linguistic correlates of proficiency in Korean as a second language. Language Research, 45 (2).

 

Determining language dominance in English-Mandarin bilinguals

Description: Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test

Languages: Mandarin/English

Source: Lim, V.P.C. et al. (2008). Determining language dominance in English–Mandarin bilinguals: Development of a self-report classification tool for clinical use. Applied Psycholinguistics, 29, 389-412.

 

The Language Experience and Proficiency Questionnaire (LEAP - Q)

Description: The Language Experience and Proficiency Questionnaire (LEAP-Q)

Languages: Spanish/English

Source: Marian, V. et al. (2007). The Language Experience and Proficiency Questionnaire (LEAP-Q): Assessing language profiles in bilinguals and multilinguals. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 50, 940-967.

 

A standardized set of 260 pictures for assessing differences and similarities in the processing of pictures and words

Description: Picture-naming task

Languages: Any language

Source: Snodgrass, J. G. & Vanderwart, M. (1980). A standardized set of 260 pictures: Norms for name agreement, image agreement, familiarity, and visual complexity. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 6(2), 174-215.

 

The case of four large scale tests of ESOL ability Assessing language dominance in bilingual acquisition

Description: Mean Length of Utterance (MLU)

Languages: Cantonese/English

Source: Yip, V. & Matthews, S. (2006). Assessing language dominance in bilingual acquisition: A case for mean length utterance differentials. Language Assessment Quarterly, 3(2), 97-116.

 

Assessing language dominance in bilingual acquisition

Description: Mean Length of Utterance (MLU)

Languages: Cantonese/English

Source: Yip, V. & Matthews, S. (2006). Assessing language dominance in bilingual acquisition: A case for mean length utterance differentials. Language Assessment Quarterly, 3(2), 97-116.

 

 

Sample Proficiency Exams

Problem sets targeting vocabulary, semantics, listening comprehension, etc.

Description: Vocabulary, semantics, listening comprehension and more for Russian language instruction.

Language: Russian

Source: Dr. Tania Ivanova-Sullivan, University of New Mexico

  • DELE Proficiency Test

  • Description: Multiple choice and cloze test with answers.

    Language: Spanish

    Source: Dr. Silvina Montrul, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

  • Role-play situations to elicit requests:

    Description: The role plays elicit requestive acts on the part of the speaker being tested. Based on the CCSARP by Blum-Kulka, House, & Kasper (1989. Cross-cultural pragmatics: Requests and apologies). In the category of speech act pragmatics.

    Language: Russian

    Source: Irina Dubinina, Brandeis University. Please contact Irina for materials by email at: idubinin@brandeis.edu

 

Websites Providing Assessment Tools

Bilingual Language Profile (BLP)

Description: The BLP is an open assessment tool for assessing language dominance through self-reports, producing a continuous dominance score and a general bilingual profile that takes into account a variety of linguistic variables.

 

Experimental Research Tools

Literature Review for Research Techniques

Psycholinguistic tool for the assessment of language loss: The HALA project

Description: An easy-to-use psycholinguistic measure of language strength, a body-part naming task, is described.

Source: O’Grady, W. et al. (2009). A psycholinguistic tool for the assessment of language loss: The HALA project. Language Documentation and Conservation, 3(1), 100-112.

 

Measuring implicit and explicit linguistic knowledge. What can heritage language learners contribute?

Description: Validates Ellis' (2005) battery of tests that measure both implicit and explicit knowledge of the L2, and extends the use of these tests to HL students (of Spanish).

Source: Bowles, M. (2011). Measuring implicit and explicit linguistic knowledge. What can heritage language learners contribute? Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 33(2), 247-271.

Experimental Methods in Language Acquisition Research

Description: Provides information on the most frequently used methods in language acquisition research. Practical discussions of experimental methods, the rationale behind these, and advantages and disadvantages of each.

Source: Blom, E. & Unsworth, S. (2010). Experimental Methods in Language Acquisition Research. Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Co.

Second Language Research: Methodology and Design

Description: Describes research methodology and design for those involved in second language studies.

Source: Mackey, A. & Gass, S. (2005). Second language research: Methodology and design. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Software for Designing/Creating Experiments, Collecting/Analyzing Data

  • SuperLab 4.0

    Description: Software to assist with designing experiments as well as collecting and analyzing data.

  • E-prime

    Description: Software to assist with designing experiments as well as collecting and analyzing data.

  • NVivo

    Description: Software to help organize and analyze qualitative types of data.

  • Experigen

    Description: Software for auditory experiments created by Michael Becker and Jonathan Levine at Harvard University.

  • IBEX

    Description: A platform for creating and hosting experiments created by Alex Drummond.

  • LINGER

    Description: A software package for performing reading, listening, and other sentence processing experiments. Able to handle non-alphabetic languages.

  • Mechanical Turk

    Description: Amazon-hosted website for experimental data collection. See Gibson, E., S. Piantadosi, and K Fedorenko. 2011. Using Mechanical Turk to Obtain and Analyze English Acceptability Judgments. Language and Linguistics Compass 5 (8).

  • DMDX

    Description: A free Windows display system that is used to measure reaction times to visual and auditory stimuli.

  • PsyScope X

    Description: A free Apple MacIntosh program that enables users to create psychological experiments.

  • ExperigenRT

    Description: A free program designed to measure reaction times in web-based auditory experiments.

  • SR Research: Complete Eye Tracking Solutions

    Description: A company that sells eye-tracking equipment and software.

  • Electro-Cap International

    Description: A website from which electro-caps to conduct ERP experiments can be ordered.

  • GOLD: Corpus Portal

    Description: A web-based program for creating linguistic corpora.

  • ActiView

    Description: Description: An acquisition program for displaying EEG/ECG/EMG data.

  • ERPLab

    Description: Description: A free and downloadable toolbox to analyze ERP data.

Websites for Data Collection Instruments and Linguistic Corpora

  • IRIS

    Description: A digital repository of data collection instruments for research into second language learning and teaching.

  • CHILDES

    Description: A database that contains interactional conversations with children in different languages.

  • AILA ReN

    Description: A research network for investigating the role of instructor and individual instructor differences that may affect SLA.

  • New England Corpus of Heritage and Second Language Speakers

    Description: An online corpora of oral and written production from heritage and L2 Spanish and Portuguese speakers.

  • Heritage Language Variation and Change in Toronto

    Description: A corpus of conversational speech from heritage languages speakers in the Toronto area.

Experimental Tasks

  • Pictures

    Description: Images for collecting data on relative clauses.

    Source: Polinsky, M. (2011). Reanalysis in adult heritage language. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 33(2), 305-328.

  • Visual Task

    Description: Visual tasks with kitchen vocabulary.

    Source: Bowles, M. (2011). Exploring the role of modality: L2-heritage learner interactions in the Spanish language classroom. Heritage Language Journal,8(1), 30-65.

Project Leader: Maria Polinsky; Project Advisors: Olesya Kissilev and Mihail Kopotev

To help scholars document and study heritage languages, we are creating a database of various types and modalities of data collected from second (foreign) language speakers and monolingual speakers of the target languages. Based on notions of ethical data sharing and searchability, we will compile audio and video recordings and written materials that will allow comparative research into HL language acquisition, maintenance, and change. The Repository will be seeded with a number of existing HL databases; we also have in-principle commitments from four research groups to contribute. To implement it, we will promulgate protocols for data collection and management.

The Repository will have immediate value to scholars. It will: (1) facilitate replication and meta-analysis; (2) encourage collaboration among researchers studying different languages; (3) avoid duplication and permit division of labor; (4) provide a mechanism to meet the federal agencies’ (NSF, NIH, etc.) data sharing requirements; and (5) facilitate access to materials in less-commonly-taught languages.

The Repository is still in development, but you can view the following link to learn how to get access.

HELADA Manual

Multilingual La La LandMultilingual La La Land: Language Use in Sixteen Greater Los Angeles Communities

Claire Hitchins Chik (University of California, Los Angeles)

 

 


The Cambridge Handbook of Heritage Languages and LinguisticsThe Cambridge Handbook of Heritage Languages and Linguistics

Silvina Montrul (University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign) & Maria Polinsky (University of Maryland, College Park)

 

 


Colorado State University - Pueblo: Building a Program to Serve all Students

Dr. Alegría Ribadeneira, Associate Professor of Spanish; Associate Chair of the English and Foreign Languages Department; Head of the Foreign Languages Program at CSU-Pueblo

 


The Acquisition of Heritage LanguagesThe Acquisition of Heritage Languages

Silvina Montrul (University of Illinois)

 

 


Heritage Languages and Their Speakers Heritage Languages and Their Speakers

Maria Polinsky (University of Maryland)

 

 


The Routledge Handbook of Heritage Language Education The Routledge Handbook of Heritage Language Education: From Innovation to Program Building

Edited by Olga Kagan (UCLA), Maria Carreira (UCLA & California State University, Long Beach), and Claire Chik (UCLA)

 


Lead with Languages Lead with Languages

Maria Carreira (UCLA & California State University, Long Beach)


Voces: Latino Students on Life in the United States Voces: Latino Students on Life in the United States

 

 Maria Carreira (UCLA & California State University, Long Beach)

 

 


Identity: The Driving Force behind Heritage Language Learning

Maria Carreira (UCLA & CSULB) and Claire Chik (UCLA)

 


Heritage Language Education: A New Field Emerging Heritage Language Education: A New Field Emerging

Edited by Donna M. Brinton (UCLA & USC), Olga Kagan (UCLA), and Susan Bauckus (UCLA & Santa Monica College)

 

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Albirini, A. (2014). The role of the colloquial varieties in the acquisition of the standard variety: The case of Arabic heritage speakers. Foreign Language Annals, 47(3), 447-463. 

Albirini, A. (2013). Toward understanding the variability in the language proficiencies of Arabic heritage speakers. International Journal of Bilingualism

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Ambridge, B., & Lieven, E. V. (2011). Child language acquisition: Contrasting theoretical approaches. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

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Andrews, D. R. (Ed.). (2008). Special issue on Russian as a heritage language. Heritage Language Journal, 6(1).

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Axel, J. (2014). Filipino in the United States: Heritage language perspectives. In T. G. Wiley, J. Kreeft Peyton, D. Christian, S. C. K. Moore, & N. Liu (Eds.), Handbook of heritage, community, and Native American languages in the United States: Research, policy, and educational practice (pp. 297-307). New York, NY and Washington, DC: Routledge and the Center for Applied Linguistics. 

Baldwin, D. (2014). Oowaaha myaamiaataweenki: Miami is spoken here. In T. G. Wiley, J. Kreeft Peyton, D. Christian, S. C. K. Moore, & N. Liu (Eds.), Handbook of heritage, community, and Native American languages in the United States: Research, policy, and educational practice (pp. 212-218). New York, NY and Washington, DC: Routledge and Center for Applied Linguistics. 

Bale, J. (2010). Arabic as a heritage language in the United States. International Multilingual Research Journal, 4, 125–151.

Bale, J. (2010). International comparative perspectives on heritage language education policy research. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 30, 42-65. 

Bale, J. (2014). Arabic in the United States. In T. G. Wiley, J. Kreeft Peyton, D. Christian, S. C. K. Moore, & N. Liu (Eds.), Handbook of heritage, community, and Native American Languages in the United States (pp. 148-156). New York, NY: Routledge.  

Bar-Shalom, E. G., & Zaretsky, E. (2008). Selective attrition in Russian-English bilingual children: Preservation of grammatical aspect. International Journal of Bilingualism, 12, 281– 302.

Bateman, B. E., & Wilkinson, S. L. (2010). Spanish for heritage speakers: A statewide survey of secondary school teachers. Foreign Language Annals, 43(2), 324-353. 

Beaudrie, S. (2009). Receptive bilinguals’ language development in the classroom: The differential effects of heritage versus foreign language curriculum. In M. Lacorte & J. Leeman (Eds.), Español en Estados Unidos y otros contextos de contacto: Sociolingüística, ideología y pedagogía (pp. 325-346). Madrid, Spain: Iberoamericana/ Vervuert Verlag. 

Beaudrie, S. (2011). Spanish heritage language programs: A snapshot of current programs in the southwestern United States. Foreign Language Annals, 44(2), 321-337. 

Beaudrie, S. (2012). Research on university-based Spanish heritage language programs in the United States: The current state of affairs. In S. Beaudrie & M. Fairclough (Eds.), Spanish as a heritage language in the United States: State of the field (pp. 203-221). Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.

Beaudrie, S., & Ducar, C. (2005). Beginning level university programs: Creating a space for all heritage language learners. Heritage Language Journal, 3(1), 1-26. 

Beaudrie, S., Ducar, C., & Relaño-Pastor, A. M. (2009). Curricular perspectives in the heritage language context: Assessing culture and identity. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 22(2), 157-174. 

Bennamamoun A., & Kagan, O. (2013). The administration of heritage language programs: Challenges and opportunities. Heritage Language Journal, 10(2), 281-293. Retrieved from: https://www.heritagelanguages.org 

Benmamoun, E., Montrul, S., & Polinsky, M. (2010). White paper: Prolegomena to heritage linguistics. Heritage Linguistics. Retrieved from: https://www.international.ucla.edu/media/files/HL-whitepaper.pdf

Benmamoun, E., Montrul, S., & Polinsky, M. (2010). Prolegomena to heritage linguistics. White paper, Harvard University.

Bermel, N., & Kagan, O. (2000). The maintenance of written Russian in heritage speakers. In O. Kagan & B. Rifkin (Eds.), The learning and teaching of Slavic languages and cultures (pp. 405-436). Bloomington, IN: Slavica.

Bianco, J. L. (2014). Documenting language loss and endangerment: Research tools and approaches. In T. G. Wiley, J. Kreeft Peyton, D. Christian, S. C. K. Moore, & N. Liu (Eds.), Handbook of heritage, community, and Native American languages in the United States: Research, policy, and educational practice (pp. 54-65). New York, NY and Washington, DC: Routledge and Center for Applied Linguistics. 

Blake, R. (1983). Mood selection among Spanish-speaking children, ages 4 to 12. Bilingual Review, 10, 21–32.

Blake, R. J., & Zyzik, E. C. (2003). Who's helping whom? Learner/heritage-speakers' networked discussions in Spanish. Applied Linguistics, 24(4), 519-544. 

Blyth, C. (Ed.). (2002). Sociolinguistics of foreign-language classrooms. Boston, MA: Heinle.

Bolonyai, A. (2007). (In)vulnerable agreement in incomplete bilingual L1 learners. International Journal of Bilingualism, 11, 3–21.

Braunmuller, K., & House, J. (Eds.). (2009). Convergence and divergence in language contact situations. Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins Publishing Company.

Brecht, R., & Ingold, C. (2002). Tapping a national resource: Heritage learners in the United States. Washington, DC: ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics.

Brehmer, B. (2011). Contact-induced changes in verb government of Polish-German bilinguals. Fifth Heritage Language Institute.

Brinton, D., Kagan, O. & Bauckus, S. (Eds.). (2008). Heritage language education: A new field emerging. New York, NY: Routledge.

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Carreira, M. (2004). Seeking explanatory adequacy: A dual approach to understanding the term “heritage language learner.” Heritage Language Journal, 2(1), 1-25. 

Carreira, M. (2007). Spanish-for-native-speaker matters: Narrowing the Latino achievement gap through Spanish language instruction. Heritage Language Journal, 5(1), 147-171. 

Carreira, M. (2012). Spanish as a heritage language: The state of the field. In J. H. Antxon Olarrea & E. O’Rourke (Eds.), The handbook of Hispanic linguistics (pp. 765-782). Oxford, UK: Wiley-Blackwell Handbooks. 

Carreira, M. (2012). Meeting the needs of heritage language learners. In S. M. Beaudrie & M. Fairclough (Eds.), Spanish as a heritage language in the United State: The state of the field (pp. 223-240). Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.

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Clemens, L., Coon J., Graff, P., López, N., Morgan, A., Mateo, P., & Polinsky, M. (2012, January 9). Experimental design for field linguistics. In Psycholinguistic Research on Less‐Studied Languages. Conducted at the Annual Meeting of the Linguistic Society of America, Portland, OR. Retrieved from https://scholar.harvard.edu/mpolinsky/publications/experimental-design-field-linguistics

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Correa, M. (2011). Advocating for critical pedagogical approaches to teaching Spanish as a heritage language: Some considerations. Foreign Language Annals, 44(2), 308-320. 

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Cummins, J. (1983). Heritage language education: A literature review. Toronto, CA: The Minister of Education, Ontario. 

Cummins, J. (2005). A proposal for action: Strategies for recognizing heritage language competence as a learning resource within the mainstream classroom. Modern Language Journal, 89, 585–592.

Dai, J-H. E., & Zhang, L. (2008). What are the CHL learners inheriting? Habits of the CHL learners. In A. W. He & Y. Xiao (Eds.), Chinese as a heritage language: Fostering rooted world citizenry (pp. 37-51). Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai'i Press. 

Daniel, J. (2000). Speak my language: Open the window to my heart, to my conscience, to my intelligence. In J.B. Webb, J. B. & B. L. Miller (Eds.), Teaching heritage language learners: Voices from the classroom (pp. 176-182). Yonkers, NY: American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages. 

De Klerk, G., & Wiley, T. G. (2008). Using the American Community Language Survey to investigate bilingualism and biliteracy among immigrant communities. Journal of Southeast Asian Education and Advancement, 3, 68-78.

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Chinese

Chinese Immigrants and Heritage Schools in the United States

The current Chinese-speaking population in the U.S. is marked with rapid expansion and high geographic concentration. The U.S. Census 2007 reported a total of 3,538,407 persons of Chinese origin (90% in Chinese race alone and the rest in combinations), forming 1.17% of the U.S. population and indicating a 22.88% increase over the year of 2000 (2,879,636 in total).

German

Heritage German in the United States

The position of German as an immigrant and then a heritage language in North America is particularly important for the linguistic history of European settlement in the western hemisphere as one of the earliest, widely spoken immigrant languages. German-Americans are often considered and, by some measures, are the largest heritage group in the United States (e.g., The Economist 2015), and the language remains widely spoken across many very different settings and regions.

Japanese

Japanese Language Education of the Earlier Generations: From 1885 to World War II

Japanese people officially began migrating to Hawai'i in 1885 and, at the turn of the century, the migration spread to the western continental United States. The immigrants left an economically troubled homeland and came to these shores in search of prosperity and the chance to provide a better life for their children.

Russian

Russian Old Believers in the USA: Language and Belief

Russian Old Believers from all over the world came to the United States for various reasons and in various ways. This article is dedicated to the Old Believers' preservation of the Russian language and their beliefs in North America in the 21st century. It also provides an overview of the measures taken for the preservation of the Russian language in the state of Oregon.